Making Reference

---
name: making-reference
description: "Use when correcting a textile, woodworking or laundry misconception, looking up a fibre property, wash temperature, shrinkage, moisture content or seam allowance figure, finding the books, or needing a quick-reference picker — plus the current state of microfibre shedding regulation and PFAS restrictions. Companion to the other making and care skills."
---

# Fabric, Clothing and Furniture: What's Live, Misconceptions, Numbers, and Books

> **Part 5 of 5** of the *Making Fabric, Clothing and Furniture — and Caring for Them* reference (plugin `making-fabric-clothing-furniture-laundering`), covering §27–§32. Sibling skills: `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing` (§0–§7), `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction` (§8–§15), `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery` (§16–§21), `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending` (§22–§26). Section numbers are shared across the set; a reference written as §N → `skill` points into that sibling skill.
>
> **Currency:** The crafts are centuries old and stable. Two areas moved. See §27 for microfibre shedding and filter regulation, and PFAS restrictions in textiles and furniture.

> **⚠️ Four crafts unified by one principle: the MATERIAL'S behaviour determines
> everything downstream.** ⚠️ **Fibre decides yarn, which decides fabric, which decides
> what garment is possible and how it must be washed.** **Wood species and grain decide
> joinery, which decides what will survive a winter of dry indoor air.** **⚠️ Almost every
> failure in this document is someone fighting the material instead of designing with it.**
>
> **Complements a cooking/cleaning/waste reference (surfactant chemistry and disinfection
> in general), and a materials or thermo reference for the underlying physics.**
>
> **⚠️ GOTCHA** boxes mark the received wisdom that's wrong, and the mistakes that destroy
> the work irreversibly.
>
> **The three ideas that organize this document:**
> 1. **⚠️ GRAIN is the master concept in both textiles and wood** (§8 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`, §16 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`). **Fabric
>    behaves differently along the warp, the weft and the bias; wood moves across the
>    grain and not along it. Both wreck the work when ignored.**
> 2. **⚠️ Wood MOVES, seasonally and forever** (§16 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`). **Every joinery decision in §17 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery` is
>    downstream of that one fact, and cross-grain construction is the single most common
>    reason furniture self-destructs.**
> 3. **⚠️ Laundering has four interchangeable levers** (§22 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`). **Temperature, chemistry,
>    mechanical action and time trade off against each other — which is why cold washing
>    works if you adjust the others, and fails if you don't.**

---

## §27. What's Live — verified August 2026

### 27.1 ⚠️ Microfibre shedding: measured, regulated, and the numbers vary wildly
**⚠️ Directly relevant to §22 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending` because it changes how you should wash synthetics.**

- **⚠️ France's AGEC law made it the first country to require microfibre filtration:
  all new washing machines sold in France from 1 January 2025 must include a certified
  microfibre capture solution.**
- **⚠️ The EU picture is in progress.** ⚠️ **A multi-stakeholder IEC group is developing
  standards to MEASURE fibre shedding and filter efficiency, reported to conclude by
  end-2026, with the Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation for washing machines
  under review in parallel and microfibre filtration on the table.** **⚠️ Implementing
  texts were reported not yet finalised as of March 2026.** **⚠️ California passed a
  built-in-filter bill in 2023 that cleared both chambers and was vetoed.**
- **⚠️ Scale**: **synthetic textiles are reported as roughly 35% of primary microplastic
  released to marine environments (IUCN), and synthetics make up about 60% of clothing and
  70% of household textiles in the EU.**

> **⚠️ GOTCHA — the shedding figures vary by more than an order of magnitude across
> sources, and you should treat any single number with suspicion.** ⚠️ **Reported ranges
> for one wash of a synthetic load run from ~100,000 to 12 million fibres**, **with one
> source giving 500,000–6,000,000 for a 6 kg synthetic load and the widely-quoted headline
> being 700,000.** **⚠️ That spread reflects genuinely different test conditions — load
> size, fabric type, cycle, machine — and the absence of a standard measurement method,
> which is precisely what the IEC work is trying to fix.** **⚠️ The DIRECTION is
> well-established; the magnitude is not.**

**⚠️ What actually reduces shedding, and it maps onto §22 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`'s levers:**
```
⚠️ FABRIC CHOICE   acrylic reportedly sheds ~5× polyester. ⚠️ Tighter yarns
   and denser constructions shed less — this is a DESIGN lever
⚠️ COLD WATER      reported 30–40% reduction (20–30°C)
⚠️ LESS AGITATION  gentler cycles, ⚠️ fuller loads (less friction per item),
   and washing synthetics LESS OFTEN
⚠️ FILTERS         reported 80–90% retention; ⚠️ in-drum bags (Guppyfriend)
   independently tested at roughly 54%
⚠️ LOWER DRYER HEAT  thermal stress increases shedding
```
**⚠️ Note the trade-off honestly**: ⚠️ **recycled polyester has a real carbon benefit and a
real shedding cost.** **⚠️ And for high-wash items — underwear, base layers, activewear —
switching to wool, cotton or linen eliminates the shedding from those items entirely,
which is the single highest-leverage change since those are the garments washed most.**

### 27.2 ⚠️ PFAS restrictions reached textiles and furniture
**⚠️ This is why stain- and water-repellent finishes (§6 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`) are changing under you.**

- **⚠️ California AB 1817 and New York's apparel ban both took effect 1 January 2025.**
  ⚠️ **California covers "textile articles" broadly — clothing, accessories, bags,
  curtains, furniture, upholstery, bedding, towels, tablecloths — while New York's is
  limited to apparel.** ⚠️ **California exempts carpets and rugs and PPE.**
- **⚠️ The thresholds tighten**: **California prohibits regulated PFAS at 100 ppm total
  organic fluorine from 2025, ⚠️ dropping to 50 ppm on 1 January 2027.** ⚠️ **Outdoor
  apparel for severe wet conditions is delayed but must be labelled "Made with PFAS
  chemicals" from 2025, with the full ban from 2028.**
- **⚠️ The state patchwork is large and growing.** **Reported: Vermont from 1 January 2026;
  Maine's phased ban targeting apparel categories from 2026; Connecticut restricting most
  uses from 2026 with a full textile and apparel ban 2028; Rhode Island from 2027;
  Colorado's full outdoor-apparel restriction 2028.** ⚠️ **One mid-2026 analysis reports at
  least 18 states with class-based PFAS restrictions on consumer products and nearly 100
  new bills introduced in 2026 alone.**
- **⚠️ Furniture is explicitly in scope in several states** — **reported labelling and
  notification requirements for fabric treatments, textile furnishings and upholstered
  furniture beginning 1 July 2026 in at least one state, with a full ban from 1 January
  2028** — **and Colorado has adopted restrictions on indoor and outdoor furniture.**
- **⚠️ EU**: **REACH Annex XVII restricts PFHxA in apparel textiles from 10 October 2026.**

> **⚠️ GOTCHA — the practical consequence for anyone making or buying, and it's not
> obvious.** ⚠️ **"Durable water repellent" finishes are being reformulated, and the PFAS-free
> replacements generally repel WATER well and repel OIL poorly.** **⚠️ That means the new
> generation of stain-resistant fabrics handles a spilled drink and does NOT handle greasy
> soil the way the old ones did** — **so §24 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`'s grease-first protocol matters more, not
> less.** ⚠️ **Also note this is now a litigation area, with reported spikes in plaintiff
> demand letters over alleged PFAS content, which is why brand claims are getting more
> carefully worded.**

**⚠️ Scope varies enormously state to state** — ⚠️ **California covers all textile articles,
New York only apparel, Maine and Vermont are broad but exclude certain outdoor and
vehicle textiles** — **so "PFAS-free" on a label means different things in different
markets.**

---

## §28. Misconceptions

| Misconception | Correction |
|---|---|
| All fibres weaken when wet | ⚠️ **Cotton and linen get STRONGER; rayon much weaker** (§1 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`) |
| Rayon is a natural fibre | ⚠️ **Regenerated cellulose, and fragile wet** (§1 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`) |
| A blend averages its components' care | ⚠️ **Inherits the strictest requirement** (§1 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`) |
| Higher yarn number = heavier | ⚠️ **Inverted in cotton/worsted count; not in denier/tex** (§2 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`) |
| Satin is a fibre | ⚠️ **A weave. Long floats — lustrous and snag-prone** (§3 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`) |
| Jersey curling is a defect | ⚠️ **Structural. Stitch asymmetry** (§4 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`) |
| Any dye works on any fibre | ⚠️ **Dye classes are fibre-specific; polyester needs ~130°C** (§6 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`) |
| Strong fibres resist pilling | ⚠️ **They pill WORSE — the pill can't break off** (§7 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`) |
| Follow the print, not the grain | ⚠️ **Follow the GRAIN. Off-grain garments twist** (§8 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Hem a bias garment immediately | ⚠️ **Hang it 24 hours first — bias grows** (§8 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Knits need the usual ease | ⚠️ **Often zero or negative** (§9 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Wash the garment, not the fabric | ⚠️ **Preshrink BEFORE cutting** (§10 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| A lockstitch is fine on knits | ⚠️ **It snaps. Use stretch stitch or serger** (§11 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Ironing and pressing are the same | ⚠️ **Press: lift and lower. Sliding distorts** (§12 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Diagonal wrinkles mean bad sewing | ⚠️ **They point toward where it's too tight** (§13 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| A needle is a needle | ⚠️ **A sharp needle CUTS knit loops. Use ballpoint** (§14 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Tension problem = adjust tension | ⚠️ **Rethread first, presser foot up** (§14 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Kiln-dried wood is stable | ⚠️ **It moves with humidity forever** (§16 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) |
| Screw the tabletop down firmly | ⚠️ **It will split. Use fasteners that let it slide** (§16 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) |
| Glue is glue; end grain is fine | ⚠️ **End grain glues poorly. Joints create long grain** (§17 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`, §18 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) |
| Squeeze-out means good clamping | ⚠️ **Even pressure is the goal, not squeeze-out** (§18 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) |
| Oily rags are just messy | ⚠️ **They spontaneously combust. Spread flat or submerge** (§19 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) |
| Foam density means firmness | ⚠️ **Density predicts longevity; firmness is feel** (§20 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) |
| A wobbly chair has a short leg | ⚠️ **Usually a loose joint** (§21 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) |
| Cold water doesn't clean | ⚠️ **Sinner's circle — substitute chemistry and time** (§22 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Fabric softener is good for laundry | ⚠️ **Ruins towels, activewear and FR sleepwear** (§22 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| More detergent cleans better | ⚠️ **Residue attracts soil. Overloading is the real issue** (§22 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Optical brighteners clean | ⚠️ **They're fluorescent dye. They build up** (§22 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Hang wet wool to dry | ⚠️ **It stretches permanently. Dry flat** (§23 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Hot water on any stain | ⚠️ **Heat SETS protein stains permanently** (§24 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Rub the stain out | ⚠️ **Blot. Rubbing drives it in and abrades** (§24 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Bleach fixes rust stains | ⚠️ **Chlorine makes rust WORSE. Use acid/oxalic** (§24 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Plastic boxes protect stored textiles | ⚠️ **Traps moisture, yellows. Use breathable cotton** (§25 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Cedar blocks kill moths | ⚠️ **Repellent at best. Cleaning and freezing work** (§26 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Moths eat clothes generally | ⚠️ **Keratin only — wool, silk, fur. And soil attracts them** (§26 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| PFAS-free means the same performance | ⚠️ **Repels water well, oil poorly** (§27.2) |
| One number describes microfibre shedding | ⚠️ **Sources vary by 100×; no standard method yet** (§27.1) |

---

## §29. Numbers

```
⚠️ Wearing ease, woven      ~2–4" at the bust · ⚠️ knits: 0 or negative
⚠️ Seam allowance           5/8" (US commercial) · 1 cm (many European)
⚠️ Needle change interval   ~6–8 hours of sewing
⚠️ Hand-sewing thread       ~18" lengths
⚠️ Wood MC for interiors    ~6–8% (kiln-dried, heated space)
⚠️ Tangential movement      roughly 2× radial (why flatsawn cups)
⚠️ Seat height              ~16–18" · depth ~18–22"
⚠️ Moth/beetle freezing     several days at −18°C, thaw and refreeze
⚠️ Microfibre per wash      reported 100,000–12,000,000 (⚠️ NO standard method)
⚠️ Acrylic vs polyester     reported ~5× shedding
⚠️ Cold wash reduction      reported 30–40%
⚠️ Filter retention         reported 80–90% · in-drum bag ~54%
⚠️ Synthetics as primary marine microplastic  ~35% (IUCN)
⚠️ CA PFAS threshold        100 ppm TOF (2025) → 50 ppm (1 Jan 2027)
⚠️ EU PFHxA in apparel      restricted from 10 Oct 2026
```

---

## §30. Books and Resources

| Author / Source | Work | Why |
|---|---|---|
| **Hollen & Saddler** | *Textiles* | ⚠️ **The standard fibre-to-fabric reference** |
| **Reader's Digest** | ***Complete Guide to Sewing*** | ⚠️ **Still the best single sewing reference** |
| **Shaeffer** | *Couture Sewing Techniques* | ⚠️ **Where the hand-work lives** |
| **Armstrong** | ***Patternmaking for Fashion Design*** | ⚠️ **§9 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`. The drafting standard** |
| **Palmer & Alto** | *Fit for Real People* | ⚠️ **§13 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`, and genuinely practical** |
| **Hoadley** | ***Understanding Wood*** | ⚠️ **§16 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`. THE book on wood movement. Read it first** |
| **Rae** | *The Complete Illustrated Guide to Joinery* | §17 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery` |
| **Flexner** | ***Understanding Wood Finishing*** | ⚠️ **§19 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`. Cuts through the marketing** |
| **Fine Woodworking** archive | — | ⚠️ **Decades of tested technique** |
| **Textile Institute** publications | — | Technical depth on §1–§7 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing` |
| **AATCC / ASTM** test methods | — | ⚠️ **What "colourfast" and "double rubs" actually mean** |
| **Care label symbol charts** (ISO 3758 / ASTM) | — | ⚠️ **Worth learning to read properly** |

---

## §31. Quick Reference

### 31.1 Picker
| Problem | Where |
|---|---|
| Garment twists on the body | ⚠️ **Cut off-grain. Not fixable** (§8 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Hem is uneven after wearing | ⚠️ **Bias grew. Hang before hemming** (§8 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Garment shrank in the first wash | ⚠️ **Didn't preshrink the fabric** (§10 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Seams snap on a knit garment | ⚠️ **Lockstitch on stretch fabric** (§11 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Holes appear along knit seams later | ⚠️ **Sharp needle cut the loops** (§14 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Puckered seams | ⚠️ **Needle, then tension, then rethread** (§11 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`, §14 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Looks homemade | ⚠️ **Press at every stage** (§12 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) |
| Tabletop split | ⚠️ **Fixed cross-grain. Wood moves** (§16 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) |
| Joint failed | ⚠️ **End grain, or the wrong joint for the force** (§17 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) |
| Chair wobbles | ⚠️ **Loose joint. Clean out old glue before regluing** (§21 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) |
| Towels stopped absorbing | ⚠️ **Fabric softener buildup** (§22 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Activewear smells after washing | ⚠️ **Oleophilic polyester; lipase, no softener** (§23 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Sweater felted | ⚠️ **Heat + moisture + agitation. Irreversible** (§23 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Stain set permanently | ⚠️ **Heat, or the dryer** (§24 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Stain came back | ⚠️ **Residual sugar/tannin or detergent. Rinse more** (§24 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Holes in wool storage | ⚠️ **Moths. Clean before storing; freeze** (§26 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`) |
| Reducing microplastic from laundry | ⚠️ **Fabric choice first, then cold and gentle** (§27.1) |

### 31.2 Before you cut / before you wash
**Cutting:**
- [ ] ⚠️ **Fabric preshrunk the way the garment will be washed** (§10 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`)
- [ ] ⚠️ **Grain straightened and pieces aligned to it** (§8 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`)
- [ ] Nap direction consistent; pattern match planned (§10 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`)
- [ ] Toile made for anything fitted or expensive (§13 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`)

**Washing:**
- [ ] ⚠️ **Care label read; strictest component governs** (§1 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`, §23 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`)
- [ ] ⚠️ **Stains treated COLD before the wash** (§24 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`)
- [ ] Machine not overloaded (§22 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`)
- [ ] ⚠️ **Nothing stained going into the dryer** (§24 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`)
- [ ] ⚠️ **Clean before storing** (§25 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`, §26 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`)

---

## §32. Method

**§1–§26 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`, `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`, `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`, `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending` is craft and materials knowledge that has been stable for a long time** — **fibre
properties, weave structures, dye chemistry, grain, wood movement, joinery, and the
mechanics of soil removal.** ⚠️ **Sinner's circle dates to the 1950s and wood has always
moved; none of it needed verification.**

**Two searches were run in August 2026**, on **microfibre shedding and filter regulation**
and **PFAS restrictions in textiles and furniture** — ⚠️ **both chosen because they change
what you should DO, not merely what's true: how to wash synthetics, and what a
stain-repellent finish will and won't now do.**

**Confidence.** **High** in §1 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`, §8 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction` and §16 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`, which are the load-bearing sections. ⚠️ **The
wet-strength inversion (§1 → `making-fibres-yarn-weaving-knitting-and-dyeing`), grain (§8 → `making-garment-drafting-seams-and-construction`) and wood movement (§16 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`) are the three facts that
prevent the most expensive mistakes in this document** — **and §16 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery` in particular is the
reason most amateur furniture eventually destroys itself.** **§19 → `making-woodworking-joinery-finishing-and-upholstery`'s oily-rag warning is the
one genuine safety hazard here and is well documented.**

**High** in §22–§26 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`'s care mechanics, which are standard textile-science and conservation
practice.

**Moderate** on §27.1's magnitudes, and I've said so in the section rather than burying it.
⚠️ **Reported per-wash shedding figures span from about 100,000 to 12 million fibres across
sources, and the widely-quoted 700,000 is one point in that range rather than a
consensus.** ⚠️ **That spread is real and reflects the absence of a standard measurement
method — which is exactly what the IEC standards work reported to conclude by end-2026 is
for.** **The regulatory facts (France's AGEC mandate from 1 January 2025, the vetoed
California bill, the ESPR review) are solid; the effectiveness percentages come from a mix
of vendor, NGO and trade sources and should be treated as indicative.** ⚠️ **Note the
sourcing skew: several sources here sell filters, bags or detergent.**

**High** on §27.2's regulatory facts, which come from multiple law-firm briefings that
agree with each other on the substantive dates and thresholds: ⚠️ **California AB 1817 and
New York effective 1 January 2025, California's 100 ppm total organic fluorine dropping to
50 ppm on 1 January 2027, the outdoor-apparel labelling requirement and 2028 ban, and
REACH's PFHxA restriction from 10 October 2026.** ⚠️ **The state-by-state list is
fast-moving — one source reports nearly 100 new bills in 2026 alone — so I've dated
everything and would verify current status for any specific market.**
⚠️ **The performance consequence in §27.2's gotcha — that PFAS-free replacements repel
water well and oil poorly — is my synthesis from the chemistry rather than a single
citation, and it's the practically useful part: it means §24 → `making-laundering-stain-removal-care-and-mending`'s grease-first stain protocol
matters more than it used to.**