Data Sql Optimization

---
name: data-sql-optimization
description: "SQL optimization for OLTP systems: EXPLAIN analysis, indexing, schema design, migrations, HA, and security across major SQL platforms."
version: "1.0"
updated: "2026-09-04"
---

# SQL Optimization — Comprehensive Reference

This skill provides actionable checklists, patterns, and templates for **transactional (OLTP) SQL optimization**: measurement-first triage, EXPLAIN/plan interpretation, balanced indexing (avoiding over-indexing), performance monitoring, schema evolution, migrations, backup/recovery, high availability, and security.

**Supported Platforms:** PostgreSQL, MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle, SQLite

**For OLAP/Analytics:** See [data-lake-platform](../data-lake-platform/SKILL.md) (ClickHouse, DuckDB, Doris, StarRocks)

---

## Quick Reference

| Task | Tool/Framework | Command | When to Use |
|------|----------------|---------|-------------|
| Query Performance Analysis | EXPLAIN ANALYZE | `EXPLAIN (ANALYZE, BUFFERS) SELECT ...` (PG) / `EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT ...` (MySQL) | Diagnose slow queries, identify missing indexes |
| Find Slow Queries | pg_stat_statements / slow query log | `SELECT * FROM pg_stat_statements ORDER BY total_exec_time DESC LIMIT 10;` | Identify performance bottlenecks in production |
| Index Analysis | pg_stat_user_indexes / SHOW INDEX | `SELECT * FROM pg_stat_user_indexes WHERE idx_scan = 0;` | Find unused indexes, validate index coverage |
| Schema Migration | Flyway / Liquibase | `flyway migrate` / `liquibase update` | Version-controlled database changes |
| Backup & Recovery | pg_dump / mysqldump | `pg_dump -Fc dbname > backup.dump` | Point-in-time recovery, disaster recovery |
| Replication Setup | Streaming / GTID | Configure postgresql.conf / my.cnf | High availability, read scaling |
| Safe Tuning Loop | Measure -> Explain -> Change -> Verify | Use tuning worksheet template | Reduce latency/cost without regressions |

---

## Decision Tree: Choosing the Right Approach

```text
Query performance issue?
    ├─ Identify slow queries first?
    │   ├─ PostgreSQL -> pg_stat_statements (top queries by total_exec_time)
    │   └─ MySQL -> Performance Schema / slow query log
    │
    ├─ Analyze execution plan?
    │   ├─ PostgreSQL -> EXPLAIN (ANALYZE, BUFFERS, VERBOSE)
    │   ├─ MySQL -> EXPLAIN FORMAT=JSON or EXPLAIN ANALYZE
    │   └─ SQL Server -> SET STATISTICS IO ON; SET STATISTICS TIME ON;
    │
    ├─ Need indexing strategy?
    │   ├─ PostgreSQL -> B-tree (default), GIN (JSONB), GiST (spatial), partial indexes
    │   ├─ MySQL -> BTREE (default), FULLTEXT (text search), SPATIAL
    │   └─ Check: Table >10k rows AND selectivity <10% AND 10x+ speedup verified
    │
    ├─ Schema changes needed?
    │   ├─ New database -> template-schema-design.md
    │   ├─ Modify schema -> template-migration.md (Flyway/Liquibase)
    │   └─ Large tables (MySQL) -> gh-ost / pt-online-schema-change (avoid locks)
    │
    ├─ High availability setup?
    │   ├─ PostgreSQL -> Streaming replication (template-replication-ha.md)
    │   └─ MySQL -> GTID-based replication (template-replication-ha.md)
    │
    ├─ Backup/disaster recovery?
    │   └─ template-backup-restore.md (pg_dump, mysqldump, PITR)
    │
    └─ Analytics on large datasets (OLAP)?
        └─ See data-lake-platform (ClickHouse, DuckDB, Doris, StarRocks)
```

---

## When to Use This Skill

Codex should invoke this skill when users ask for:

### Query Optimization (Modern Approaches)
- SQL query performance review and tuning
- EXPLAIN/plan interpretation with optimization suggestions
- Index creation strategies with balanced approach (avoiding over-indexing)
- Troubleshooting slow queries using pg_stat_statements or Performance Schema
- Identifying and remediating SQL anti-patterns with operational fixes
- Query rewrite suggestions or migration from slow to fast patterns
- Statistics maintenance and auto-analyze configuration

### Database Operations
- Schema design with normalization and performance trade-offs
- Database migrations with version control (Liquibase, Flyway)
- Backup and recovery strategies (point-in-time recovery, automated testing)
- High availability and replication setup (streaming, GTID-based)
- Database security auditing (access controls, encryption, SQL injection prevention)
- Lock analysis and deadlock troubleshooting
- Connection pooling (pgBouncer, Pgpool-II, ProxySQL)

### Performance Tuning (Modern Standards)
- Memory configuration (work_mem, shared_buffers, effective_cache_size)
- Automated monitoring with pg_stat_statements and query pattern analysis
- Index health monitoring (unused index detection, index bloat analysis)
- Vacuum strategy and autovacuum tuning (PostgreSQL)
- InnoDB buffer pool optimization (MySQL)
- Partition pruning improvements (PostgreSQL 18+)

---

## Resources (Best Practices Guides)

Find detailed operational patterns and quick references in:

- **SQL Best Practices**: [references/sql-best-practices.md](references/sql-best-practices.md)
- **Query Tuning Patterns**: [references/query-tuning-patterns.md](references/query-tuning-patterns.md)
- **Indexing Strategies**: [references/index-patterns.md](references/index-patterns.md)
- **EXPLAIN/Analysis**: [references/explain-analysis.md](references/explain-analysis.md)
- **SQL Anti-Patterns**: [references/sql-antipatterns.md](references/sql-antipatterns.md)
- **External Sources**: [data/sources.json](data/sources.json) — vendor docs and reference links
- **Operational Standards**: [references/operational-patterns.md](references/operational-patterns.md) — Deep operational checklists, database-specific guidance, and template selection trees
- **Connection Pooling**: [references/connection-pooling-patterns.md](references/connection-pooling-patterns.md) — PgBouncer, RDS Proxy, pool sizing, connection leak troubleshooting
- **Partition Strategies**: [references/partition-strategies.md](references/partition-strategies.md) — Range/list/hash partitioning, pruning, maintenance, migration patterns
- **Monitoring & Alerting**: [references/monitoring-alerting-patterns.md](references/monitoring-alerting-patterns.md) — pg_stat_statements dashboards, alert thresholds, slow query pipelines

Each file includes:
- Copy-paste ready checklists (e.g., "query review", "index design", "explain review")
- Anti-patterns with operational fixes and alternatives
- Query rewrite and indexing strategies with examples
- Troubleshooting guides (step-by-step)

---

## Templates (Copy-Paste Ready)

Templates are organized by database technology for precision and clarity:

### Cross-Platform Templates (All Databases)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-query-tuning.md](assets/cross-platform/template-query-tuning.md) - Universal query optimization
- [assets/cross-platform/template-explain-analysis.md](assets/cross-platform/template-explain-analysis.md) - Execution plan analysis
- [assets/cross-platform/template-performance-tuning-worksheet.md](assets/cross-platform/template-performance-tuning-worksheet.md) - **NEW** 4-step tuning workflow (Measure -> Explain -> Change -> Verify)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-index.md](assets/cross-platform/template-index.md) - Index design patterns
- [assets/cross-platform/template-slow-query.md](assets/cross-platform/template-slow-query.md) - Slow query triage
- [assets/cross-platform/template-schema-design.md](assets/cross-platform/template-schema-design.md) - Schema modeling
- [assets/cross-platform/template-migration.md](assets/cross-platform/template-migration.md) - Database migrations
- [assets/cross-platform/template-backup-restore.md](assets/cross-platform/template-backup-restore.md) - Backup/DR planning
- [assets/cross-platform/template-security-audit.md](assets/cross-platform/template-security-audit.md) - Security review
- [assets/cross-platform/template-diagnostics.md](assets/cross-platform/template-diagnostics.md) - Performance diagnostics
- [assets/cross-platform/template-lock-analysis.md](assets/cross-platform/template-lock-analysis.md) - Lock troubleshooting

### PostgreSQL Templates
- [assets/postgres/template-pg-explain.md](assets/postgres/template-pg-explain.md) - PostgreSQL EXPLAIN analysis
- [assets/postgres/template-pg-index.md](assets/postgres/template-pg-index.md) - PostgreSQL indexing (B-tree, GIN, GiST)
- [assets/postgres/template-replication-ha.md](assets/postgres/template-replication-ha.md) - Streaming replication & HA

### MySQL Templates
- [assets/mysql/template-mysql-explain.md](assets/mysql/template-mysql-explain.md) - MySQL EXPLAIN analysis
- [assets/mysql/template-mysql-index.md](assets/mysql/template-mysql-index.md) - MySQL/InnoDB indexing
- [assets/mysql/template-replication-ha.md](assets/mysql/template-replication-ha.md) - MySQL replication & HA

### Microsoft SQL Server Templates
- [assets/mssql/template-mssql-explain.md](assets/mssql/template-mssql-explain.md) - SQL Server EXPLAIN/SHOWPLAN analysis
- [assets/mssql/template-mssql-index.md](assets/mssql/template-mssql-index.md) - SQL Server indexing and tuning

### Oracle Templates
- [assets/oracle/template-oracle-explain.md](assets/oracle/template-oracle-explain.md) - Oracle EXPLAIN plan review and tuning

### SQLite Templates
- [assets/sqlite/template-sqlite-optimization.md](assets/sqlite/template-sqlite-optimization.md) - SQLite optimization and pragma guidance

---

## Related Skills

**Application Integration:**
- [../dev-api-design/SKILL.md](../dev-api-design/SKILL.md) — REST API and database interaction patterns
- [../dev-database-patterns/SKILL.md](../dev-database-patterns/SKILL.md) — Application-side database patterns (migrations, N+1, pooling)
- [../data-supabase-patterns/SKILL.md](../data-supabase-patterns/SKILL.md) — Postgres/Supabase specifics (RLS, EXPLAIN diagnostics)

**Quality & Security:**
- [../dev-error-handling/SKILL.md](../dev-error-handling/SKILL.md) — Resilience, retry, circuit breakers
- [../dev-security-patterns/SKILL.md](../dev-security-patterns/SKILL.md) — Database security, auth, SQL injection prevention
- [../dev-testing-strategy/SKILL.md](../dev-testing-strategy/SKILL.md) — Testing strategies

**Data Engineering:**
- [../ai-ml-data-science/SKILL.md](../ai-ml-data-science/SKILL.md) — SQLMesh, dbt, data transformations
- [../ai-ml-timeseries/SKILL.md](../ai-ml-timeseries/SKILL.md) — Time-series databases and forecasting

For infrastructure operations, monitoring, and incident response, use the operational references in this skill: [references/operational-patterns.md](references/operational-patterns.md) and [references/monitoring-alerting-patterns.md](references/monitoring-alerting-patterns.md).

---

## Navigation

**Resources**
- [references/explain-analysis.md](references/explain-analysis.md)
- [references/query-tuning-patterns.md](references/query-tuning-patterns.md)
- [references/operational-patterns.md](references/operational-patterns.md)
- [references/sql-antipatterns.md](references/sql-antipatterns.md)
- [references/index-patterns.md](references/index-patterns.md)
- [references/sql-best-practices.md](references/sql-best-practices.md)
- [references/connection-pooling-patterns.md](references/connection-pooling-patterns.md)
- [references/partition-strategies.md](references/partition-strategies.md)
- [references/monitoring-alerting-patterns.md](references/monitoring-alerting-patterns.md)

**Templates**
- [assets/cross-platform/template-slow-query.md](assets/cross-platform/template-slow-query.md)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-backup-restore.md](assets/cross-platform/template-backup-restore.md)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-schema-design.md](assets/cross-platform/template-schema-design.md)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-explain-analysis.md](assets/cross-platform/template-explain-analysis.md)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-performance-tuning-worksheet.md](assets/cross-platform/template-performance-tuning-worksheet.md)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-security-audit.md](assets/cross-platform/template-security-audit.md)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-diagnostics.md](assets/cross-platform/template-diagnostics.md)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-index.md](assets/cross-platform/template-index.md)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-migration.md](assets/cross-platform/template-migration.md)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-lock-analysis.md](assets/cross-platform/template-lock-analysis.md)
- [assets/cross-platform/template-query-tuning.md](assets/cross-platform/template-query-tuning.md)
- [assets/oracle/template-oracle-explain.md](assets/oracle/template-oracle-explain.md)
- [assets/sqlite/template-sqlite-optimization.md](assets/sqlite/template-sqlite-optimization.md)
- [assets/postgres/template-pg-index.md](assets/postgres/template-pg-index.md)
- [assets/postgres/template-replication-ha.md](assets/postgres/template-replication-ha.md)
- [assets/postgres/template-pg-explain.md](assets/postgres/template-pg-explain.md)
- [assets/mysql/template-mysql-explain.md](assets/mysql/template-mysql-explain.md)
- [assets/mysql/template-mysql-index.md](assets/mysql/template-mysql-index.md)
- [assets/mysql/template-replication-ha.md](assets/mysql/template-replication-ha.md)
- [assets/mssql/template-mssql-index.md](assets/mssql/template-mssql-index.md)
- [assets/mssql/template-mssql-explain.md](assets/mssql/template-mssql-explain.md)

**Data**
- [data/sources.json](data/sources.json) — Curated external references

---

## Operational Deep Dives

See [references/operational-patterns.md](references/operational-patterns.md) for:
- End-to-end optimization checklists and anti-pattern fixes
- Database-specific quick references (PostgreSQL, MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle, SQLite)
- Slow query troubleshooting workflow and reliability drills
- Template selection decision tree and platform migration notes

---

## Do / Avoid

### GOOD: Do

- Measure baseline before any optimization
- Change one variable at a time
- Verify results match after query changes
- Update statistics before concluding "needs index"
- Test with production-like data volumes
- Document all optimization decisions
- Include performance tests in CI/CD

### BAD: Avoid

- Adding indexes without checking if they'll be used
- Using SELECT * in production queries
- Optimizing for test data (use representative volumes)
- Ignoring write performance impact of indexes
- Skipping EXPLAIN analysis before changes
- Multiple simultaneous changes (can't attribute improvement)
- N+1 query patterns in application code

---

## Anti-Patterns Quick Reference

| Anti-Pattern | Problem | Fix |
|--------------|---------|-----|
| **SELECT *** | Reads unnecessary columns | Explicit column list |
| **N+1 queries** | Multiplied round trips | JOIN or batch fetch |
| **Missing WHERE** | Full table scan | Add predicates |
| **Function on indexed column** | Can't use index | Move function to RHS |
| **Implicit type conversion** | Index bypass | Match types explicitly |
| **LIKE '%prefix'** | Leading wildcard = scan | Full-text search |
| **Unbounded result set** | Memory explosion | Add LIMIT/pagination |
| **OR conditions** | Index may not be used | UNION or rewrite |

See [references/sql-antipatterns.md](references/sql-antipatterns.md) for detailed fixes.

---

## OLTP vs OLAP Decision Tree

```text
Is your query for...?
├─ Point lookups (by ID/key)?
│   └─ OLTP database (this skill)
│       - Ensure proper indexes
│       - Use connection pooling
│       - Optimize for low latency
│
├─ Aggregations over recent data (dashboard)?
│   └─ OLTP database (this skill)
│       - Consider materialized views
│       - Index common filter columns
│       - Watch for lock contention
│
├─ Full table scans or historical analysis?
│   └─ OLAP database (data-lake-platform)
│       - ClickHouse, DuckDB, Doris
│       - Columnar storage
│       - Partitioning by date
│
└─ Mixed workload (both)?
    └─ Separate OLTP and OLAP
        - OLTP for transactions
        - Replicate to OLAP for analytics
        - Avoid running analytics on primary
```

---

## Optional: AI/Automation

> **Note**: AI tools assist but require human validation of correctness.

- **EXPLAIN summarization** — Identify bottlenecks from complex plans
- **Query rewrite suggestions** — Must verify result equivalence
- **Index recommendations** — Check selectivity and write impact first

### Bounded Claims

- AI cannot determine correct query results
- Automated index suggestions may miss workload context
- Human review required for production changes

---

## Analytical Databases (OLAP)

For OLAP databases and data lake infrastructure, see **[data-lake-platform](../data-lake-platform/SKILL.md)**:

- **Query engines:** ClickHouse, DuckDB, Apache Doris, StarRocks
- **Table formats:** Apache Iceberg, Delta Lake, Apache Hudi
- **Transformation:** SQLMesh, dbt (staging/marts layers)
- **Ingestion:** dlt, Airbyte (connectors)
- **Streaming:** Apache Kafka patterns

This skill focuses on **transactional database optimization** (PostgreSQL, MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle, SQLite). Use data-lake-platform for analytical workloads.

---

## Related Skills

This skill focuses on **query optimization** within a single database. For related workflows:

**SQL Transformation & Analytics Engineering:**
-> **[ai-ml-data-science](../ai-ml-data-science/SKILL.md)** skill
- SQLMesh templates for building staging/intermediate/marts layers
- Incremental models (FULL, INCREMENTAL_BY_TIME_RANGE, INCREMENTAL_BY_UNIQUE_KEY)
- DAG management and model dependencies
- Unit tests and audits for SQL transformations

**Data Ingestion (Loading into Warehouses):**
Use dlt (data load tool) to extract from REST APIs and databases and load into Snowflake, BigQuery, Redshift, Postgres, or DuckDB, with incremental loading (timestamp, ID-based, merge/upsert); ingestion patterns are covered in **[data-lake-platform](../data-lake-platform/SKILL.md)**.

**Data Lake Infrastructure:**
-> **[data-lake-platform](../data-lake-platform/SKILL.md)** skill

- ClickHouse, DuckDB, Doris, StarRocks query engines
- Iceberg, Delta Lake, Hudi table formats
- Kafka streaming, Dagster/Airflow orchestration

**Use Case Decision:**

- **Query is slow in production** -> Use this skill (data-sql-optimization)
- **Building feature pipelines in SQL** -> Use ai-ml-data-science (SQLMesh)
- **Loading data from APIs/DBs to warehouse** -> Use ai-mlops (dlt)
- **Analytics on large datasets (OLAP)** -> Use data-lake-platform

---

## External Resources

See [data/sources.json](data/sources.json) for 62+ curated resources including:

**Core Documentation:**
- **RDBMS Documentation**: PostgreSQL, MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle, SQLite, DuckDB official docs
- **Query Optimization**: Use The Index, Luke, SQL Performance Explained, vendor optimization guides
- **Schema Design**: Database Refactoring (Fowler), normalization guides, data type selection

**Modern Optimization (Current):**
- **PostgreSQL**: official release notes and "current" docs for planner/optimizer changes
- **MySQL**: official reference manual sections for EXPLAIN, optimizer, and Performance Schema
- **SQL Server / Oracle**: official docs for execution plans, indexing, and concurrency controls

**Operations & Infrastructure:**
- **HA & Replication**: Streaming replication, GTID-based replication, failover automation
- **Migrations**: Liquibase, Flyway version control and deployment patterns
- **Backup/Recovery**: pgBackRest, Percona XtraBackup, point-in-time recovery
- **Monitoring**: pg_stat_statements, Performance Schema, EXPLAIN visualizers (Dalibo, depesz)
- **Security**: OWASP SQL Injection Prevention, Postgres hardening, encryption standards
- **Analytical Databases**: DuckDB extensions, Parquet specification, columnar storage patterns

---

Use [references/operational-patterns.md](references/operational-patterns.md) and the templates directory for detailed workflows, migration notes, and ready-to-run commands.

## Fact-Checking

- Use web search/web fetch to verify current external facts, versions, pricing, deadlines, regulations, or platform behavior before final answers.
- Prefer primary sources; report source links and dates for volatile information.
- If web access is unavailable, state the limitation and mark guidance as unverified.