S4ag Land Reading

---
name: s4ag-land-reading
description: "Read and assess a piece of land. Use when the user says things like 'looking at a new property', 'how do I read this land', 'what does this land tell me', 'assessing a farm', 'reading the landscape', 'what can I grow here', or 'understanding my land'."
allowed-tools: [Read]
---

# Land Reading

Before any input or enterprise decision, you need to understand the land itself. Land reading is structured observation: you are translating the physical, ecological, and historical record of a site into a map of what it can do and what it needs. Every landform, plant community, drainage pattern, and soil profile is a data point. This skill gives you the method to read them systematically rather than guessing.

**How this skill works:** Each sub-tool pauses at a **Checkpoint** to confirm the assumptions it is about to build on before producing output. A recommendation built on a wrong assumption wastes time and money — confirm the checkpoint before acting. Each sub-tool ends with **Next steps** — the skills worth running once you have acted on this one.

---

## Expert Lineage

*The thinkers whose frameworks underpin this skill — and what they specifically discovered that changes how you farm.*

**P.A. Yeomans — Keyline Design and Landscape Water Reading**
Yeomans developed the keyline as the critical topographic line on any landscape — the inflection point between diverging and concentrating water flow. His specific contribution: on every slope, there is a line above which water spreads out and below which it converges. Farming above this line with keyline-pattern cultivation moves water from the valley (where it concentrates) toward the ridge (where it's scarce), equalising soil moisture across the whole property. Before any earthworks or irrigation investment, reading the keyline tells you where water naturally wants to go — and how to work with that rather than against it.

**Charles Massy — Five Landscape Functions**
Massy's framework names the five functions that determine whether a landscape is gaining or losing ecological health: the solar energy cycle, the water cycle, the mineral/nutrient cycle, the soil biological community, and biodiversity. His insight from *Call of the Reed Warbler* is diagnostic: any landscape can be assessed across these five dimensions in a single walk-over. A farm that appears productive on conventional metrics may be failing two or three of these functions and moving toward degradation. The five functions give you a language for what you are seeing before you have any lab data.

**Masanobu Fukuoka — Observation Before Action**
Fukuoka's practice, documented in *One-Straw Revolution*, established a principle that changed how many farmers approach land: observe for a full year before changing anything. His specific finding was that most management decisions — including his own early ones — imposed assumptions on the land that the land then had to overcome. The farmer who watches first — how water moves after heavy rain, where frost settles, which plants emerge without help — spends less and achieves more than the farmer who acts on first impressions. This skill embeds that principle in the observation methodology.

**Jerome Osentowski — Microclimate Reading for Site Design**
Osentowski's work at the Central Rocky Mountain Permaculture Institute demonstrated that microclimate variation within a single property can span the equivalent of two to three climate zones. His specific contribution: aspect, slope angle, wind exposure, and thermal mass (rock, water, soil type) interact to create pockets of radically different growing conditions within walking distance of each other. A site reading that ignores microclimate misses the most important design variable for enterprise placement and species selection.

**Elaine Ingham — Vegetation as Food Web Indicator**
Ingham's soil food web framework makes vegetation reading diagnostic rather than merely descriptive. Annual weeds — dock, thistle, pigweed, annual grasses — dominate bacteria-dominated, disturbed soils. Perennial forbs, clovers, and diverse grasslands indicate recovering fungal communities. Deep-rooted perennials with intact mycorrhizal networks change the plant community that establishes. Reading the plant community tells you the food web status before any lab test — and that status determines which enterprise choices are realistic without major biological rehabilitation.

**David Holmgren — Pattern Language in Landscape**
Holmgren's contribution through permaculture design is the use of pattern recognition as an analytical tool: branching, spiraling, edge, and mosaic patterns in landscape reveal how energy and material cycle through that system. His specific insight: edges between two ecosystems (forest/grassland, wet/dry, slope/flat) are where biological diversity and productivity are highest — they should be read as assets, not as management problems. Every fence line, watercourse, or slope break is a potential edge zone worth designing toward rather than managing away.

---

## Which tool fits

| You need to... | Tool |
|---|---|
| Understand the shape of the land and what it means for water and enterprise | landform-reading |
| Identify what the plant community is telling you about soil and history | vegetation-indicators |
| Do a hands-on soil assessment without lab tests | soil-profile |
| Map where water flows, ponds, infiltrates, and drains | water-patterns |
| Understand what has happened on this land before you | history-reading |
| Translate all observations into an enterprise potential map | potential-mapping |

## Routing Decision

- **Just acquired or assessing unfamiliar land** → start with landform-reading, then follow the natural sequence through to potential-mapping
- **Familiar land but something has changed or is not working** → vegetation-indicators first to check food web signals, then soil-profile
- **Planning earthworks or water infrastructure** → water-patterns before any design work
- **Making an enterprise decision — what to grow or raise here** → potential-mapping, drawing on prior sub-tools for data
- **Buying or leasing a property and need a structured assessment** → history-reading first to surface legacy issues, then full sequence
- **Unsure where to start** → landform-reading; the shape of the land determines everything else

---

## Landform Reading

*Translates the contour, slope, aspect, and drainage patterns of the land into farm design constraints and opportunities.*

The shape of the land controls water, temperature, and productive potential more than any other single variable. Reading landform correctly takes thirty minutes and changes every subsequent decision. Do this before putting a spade in the ground.

**Work through the landform in this order:**

**1. Identify the slope categories.**

| Slope | Description | Farming implication |
|---|---|---|
| 0–2% | Flat | Water ponds, drainage critical; machinery efficient; frost risk in hollows |
| 2–8% | Gentle | Good all-purpose; keyline cultivation practical; erosion manageable |
| 8–15% | Moderate | Contour management essential; cultivation requires care; perennial or pasture preferred |
| 15–25% | Steep | Cultivation inadvisable; perennial systems only; high erosion risk |
| 25%+ | Very steep | Forestry or revegetation; no cultivation; erosion permanent if disturbed |

**2. Identify aspect — which direction does the slope face?**

In the northern hemisphere:
- North-facing slopes: cooler, shadier, hold moisture longer; suited to shade-tolerant species; frost risk higher
- South-facing slopes: warmer, drier, earlier season; suited to warmth-demanding crops; drought risk higher
- East-facing: morning sun, afternoon shade; moderate microclimate; suits most enterprises
- West-facing: afternoon sun, can be hot and dry in summer; wind exposure often higher

In the southern hemisphere, reverse north/south.

**3. Find the keyline (Yeomans).**

Walk the slope from ridge to valley. Find the inflection point — where the slope changes from convex (steepening) to concave (flattening toward the valley floor). This is the keyline. Above it, water spreads; below it, water converges. The keyline is where you site swales for maximum lateral water distribution. It is also where keyline ripping achieves the most soil aeration.

Mark the keyline mentally or physically — it is the single most important line on the property for water management design.

**4. Read the ridge-to-valley sequence.**

- Ridge and upper slopes: drying, erosion-prone, exposed; wind shelter and windbreaks have high value here
- Mid-slopes around the keyline: highest agricultural potential; water balanced; deep soils typical
- Lower slopes and valley floor: water accumulates; cold air drains here (frost pockets); richest soils but highest waterlogging risk

**5. Identify frost hollows.**

Cold air is denser than warm air and flows downhill, pooling in hollows and low-lying areas. In areas with frost risk, note every hollow, flat bottom, and area surrounded by higher ground — these are frost pockets and should not receive frost-sensitive enterprises. This is a standard observation error: planting fruit trees in the warmest-seeming spot (south-facing) while missing that it is also a frost trap.

**6. Read existing drainage channels.**

Follow any natural drainage lines. Note whether they are:
- Cutting down (incising): indicates erosion; water moving too fast; loss of topsoil
- Shallow and spreading: water moving slowly, infiltrating well; good soil structure
- Dry except in heavy rain: limited catchment or high infiltration
- Permanently damp: high water table; drainage issue or spring presence

**Checkpoint — confirm before finalising:**
- What hemisphere and climate zone is this land in? Aspect interpretation reverses between hemispheres; frost risk varies by climate.
- Is this an assessment for purchase/lease decision, or for active design on land already farmed? The depth of analysis differs.
- Are there any known drainage problems, seasonal flooding, or problem areas the farmer has already identified?

A landform reading that misses the hemisphere, or that recommends enterprise placements without confirming existing known problems, produces a plan that conflicts with reality on the ground.

**Output:**
```
LANDFORM READING — [Property/Paddock Name]

SLOPE PROFILE
Dominant slope category: [0–2% / 2–8% / 8–15% / 15–25% / 25%+]
Secondary slope areas: [description]

ASPECT
Primary aspect: [N/S/E/W facing]
Implication: [warmer/cooler/drier/wetter — suited to what]

KEYLINE
Keyline location: [description or rough distance from valley floor]
Water movement above keyline: [spreads or concentrates?]
Water management opportunity: [swales / keyline ripping / other]

RIDGE-TO-VALLEY ZONES
Ridge/upper slopes: [note condition and risk]
Mid-slope (keyline zone): [note productive potential]
Lower slopes/valley floor: [note waterlogging or frost risk]

FROST RISK AREAS
[List any identified hollow or low-lying frost pockets]

DRAINAGE CHANNELS
[Channel 1]: [condition — incising/stable/damp]
[Channel 2]: [condition]

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS
- [most important landform-driven constraint]
- [most important landform-driven opportunity]
```

**Next steps:**
- Run **water-patterns** (within this skill) to follow the drainage detail the landform reading points to.
- `/s4ag-earthworks` — if the keyline analysis identifies water management opportunity, design earthworks around the keyline.
- Run **potential-mapping** (within this skill) once landform and water are understood.

---

## Vegetation Indicators

*Reads the plant community as a biological record of soil condition, disturbance history, and food web status.*

The plants growing on a piece of land did not arrive randomly. Each species prefers specific conditions — soil pH, compaction level, moisture regime, nutrient excess or deficiency, and biological activity. A careful vegetation reading tells you the food web status, drainage condition, and disturbance history of each paddock without any lab analysis.

**Reading the indicator plant communities:**

**Disturbance and biology indicators:**

| Plant observed | What it indicates |
|---|---|
| Annual thistles (Cirsium, Sonchus) | Disturbed, bacteria-dominated soil; low fungal activity; often follows tillage or compaction |
| Dock (Rumex) | Compaction and poor drainage; phosphorus-rich but poorly available; disturbed food web |
| Nettles | High nitrogen and phosphorus; often indicates animal manure concentration or past human activity |
| Annual grasses (ryegrass, barley grass) | Bacterial-dominated, low-OM soil; responds well to added fertility but needs biology rebuilt |
| Pigweed / fat hen (Chenopodium) | Fertile, disturbed soil; bacteria-dominated; indicates tillage history |
| Creeping buttercup | Waterlogged, compacted, poorly drained soil; food web likely anaerobic in wet periods |
| Rush (Juncus) | Waterlogging; high water table; drainage required |
| Bracken | Acid soil, often low phosphorus; can indicate previous woodland or heath |

**Recovery and biology indicators:**

| Plant observed | What it indicates |
|---|---|
| Clover (Trifolium) | Nitrogen-fixing bacterial communities active; soil pH adequate; food web recovering |
| Yarrow | Deep-rooted; indicates drier, better-drained ground; attracts beneficials |
| Plantain (Plantago) | Compaction tolerant but also common in recovering pastures; deep tap root |
| Chicory | Deep tap root breaking compaction; indicates low calcium common |
| Dandelion | Calcium-drawing deep root; fungal-associated; indicates soil recovery underway |
| Diverse pasture (multiple grass and forb species) | Biologically diverse, recovering food web; high-value pasture |
| Legume presence in pasture | Active bacterial N-fixation; soil pH above 6.0; good foundation |

**Weed pressure as food web signal:**
Annual weeds dominate bacteria-dominated soils. Perennial diverse plant communities indicate fungal recovery. The transition from annual weed pressure to perennial forb and grass diversity is a visible proxy for the transition from bacterial to fungal soil biology — which is the direction of travel toward greater resilience and productivity in most farm contexts.

**Tree and shrub presence:**
- Native trees and shrubs in hedgerows: deep mycorrhizal network; landscape continuity
- Scrub invasion (blackthorn, hawthorn, bramble) on open ground: indicates grazing pressure reduction or abandonment; food web likely intact beneath
- Dead trees or die-back: check drainage and root zone condition; waterlogging or compaction often causal

**Mapping the plant communities:**

Walk each paddock systematically. Note:
1. The dominant species (>30% cover)
2. The subdominant species (10–30% cover)
3. Any indicator species present regardless of abundance

Mark the observations onto a simple paddock map. Compare paddock to paddock — differences in plant community between paddocks farmed similarly indicate differences in soil condition, drainage, or history.

**Checkpoint — confirm before finalising:**
- What region and climate is the property in? Plant communities and indicator species differ by geography.
- What has this land been used for in recent years — grazed, cropped, fallow, managed, neglected? This context changes the interpretation of what you see.
- Is this a spring, summer, or autumn observation? Seasonal plant communities shift; annual weeds most visible in summer, some indicators only present in spring.

Identifying indicator plants without regional and seasonal context leads to misinterpretation — a rush-dominated paddock on a property with a known spring means waterlogging; on a property with a known history of irrigation ponding it means infrastructure damage.

**Output:**
```
VEGETATION INDICATOR REPORT — [Paddock/Area Name]

DOMINANT PLANT COMMUNITY
Dominant species: [species, % cover]
Subdominant: [species, % cover]

INDICATOR SPECIES PRESENT
[Species]: [what it indicates]
[Species]: [what it indicates]

FOOD WEB STATUS READING
Biology level: [bacteria-dominated / transitional / fungal-recovering / diverse]
Evidence: [list indicator species that support this reading]

DRAINAGE SIGNAL
[Waterlogged indicators present? / Well-drained indicators? / Mixed?]

DISTURBANCE HISTORY SIGNAL
[What the plant community suggests about past management]

PRIORITY ACTIONS INDICATED
1. [first action — address most critical issue]
2. [second action]
```

**Next steps:**
- Run **soil-profile** (within this skill) to confirm what the vegetation is indicating with a spade test.
- `/s4ag-soil` — if the vegetation reading indicates severe food web degradation, run a full soil biology assessment.
- `/s4ag-composting` — if the indicators point to low-biology, bacteria-dominated soil, begin rebuilding with compost.

---

## Soil Profile

*Conducts a field soil assessment — spade test, penetrometer, earthworm count, texture and smell — without relying on lab results.*

The spade test is the most information-dense five minutes in farming. You do not need a laboratory to understand the fundamental condition of your soil. The observations below are direct, physical, and actionable.

**Equipment needed:**
- Spade or narrow spade (for a clean, flat-sided profile)
- Penetrometer (optional but useful; can substitute with a metal rod and hand pressure)
- Bucket of water (for slake test)
- Notebook

**The assessment sequence:**

**Step 1: The penetrometer pass.**
Before digging, push the penetrometer vertically into undisturbed soil in three or four representative spots in the paddock.
- Note depth at which resistance increases significantly — this marks the compaction layer.
- Under 10cm: surface crusting or very severe compaction.
- 15–25cm: classic tillage pan.
- 25–40cm: subsoil compaction from heavy machinery.
- 40cm+ without significant resistance: no mechanical compaction detected.

**Step 2: The spade profile.**
Dig a flat-sided hole to at least 30cm, ideally 45cm. Lay the removed soil aside in order. Examine the profile face.

| Profile feature | Good sign | Poor sign |
|---|---|---|
| Colour | Dark brown/black (high OM) to consistent horizon colour | Pale, grey-mottled, or blue-grey at any depth |
| Structure | Crumbly aggregates, biological pores, granular | Horizontal plates, dense clods, no visible pores |
| Roots | Penetrate freely to depth, follow pores | Shallow, horizontal at compaction layer, few or none |
| Earthworms | Visible in profile and in removed soil | Absent or very few |
| Pores | Visible vertical channels, cracks, and pores | Dense, no channels, puddled appearance |
| Smell | Earthy, fungal, petrichor after rain | Sour, rotten eggs (sulphide/anaerobic), or no smell |
| Mottling | None, or only at known water table depth | Grey or orange mottling at shallow depth (anaerobic) |

**Step 3: The earthworm count.**
Take the soil from one spade cut (roughly 30cm x 20cm x 20cm) and count all earthworms visible. Set a 3-minute timer and count as you break through the soil.

| Count | Status |
|---|---|
| 25+ earthworms | Excellent biological activity |
| 10–25 | Good; biology present |
| 5–10 | Moderate; improving |
| Under 5 | Low biology; concern |
| 0 | Severely degraded or highly compacted |

Note: earthworm counts vary seasonally — higher in spring and autumn, lower in hot dry conditions. Adjust expectations accordingly.

**Step 4: The slake test.**
Take a dry soil aggregate (a clod roughly the size of a golf ball, dried in the sun or oven) and drop it into a bucket of still water. Observe for 5 minutes.
- Aggregate holds shape: stable structure — good biological aggregation; fungi and bacteria have cemented the particles.
- Aggregate slumps slowly: moderate stability; some biological aggregation.
- Aggregate instantly disperses into a cloud: no biological structure; high erosion risk; food web not producing aggregate-forming compounds.

**Step 5: Texture assessment.**
Take a handful of moist (not wet) soil and work it between thumb and forefinger.
- Gritty, doesn't hold together: sandy — low water retention, fast draining, low CEC.
- Smooth, sticky when wet, cracks when dry: clay — high water retention, slow draining, high CEC when pH is right.
- Silky, intermediate: loam — best of both; tends to be most productive.
- Gritty with some cohesion: sandy loam — good drainage, moderate retention.

**Checkpoint — confirm before finalising:**
- What season is the assessment being done? Earthworm counts and soil moisture both vary — this changes the baseline for interpreting what you find.
- Has this paddock had recent chemical applications (fungicide, herbicide, fumigant)? Severely depressed biology may be recent rather than structural.
- Is the farmer looking for a rapid field assessment, or a detailed profile for design purposes?

An earthworm count done in dry summer conditions on a healthy farm may produce a falsely alarming result; a slake test done on recently wetted soil produces an unreliable aggregate stability result.

**Output:**
```
SOIL PROFILE ASSESSMENT — [Paddock/Date]

PENETROMETER
Resistance layer depth: [cm or 'none detected to Xcm']
Compaction type: [surface / tillage pan / subsoil / none]

PROFILE FACE
Colour: [description and status]
Structure: [crumbly / platy / massive / granular]
Roots: [depth reached / behaviour at any layer]
Pores: [visible channels / none]
Mottling: [present at Xcm / absent]
Smell: [earthy / sour / none]

EARTHWORM COUNT
Count: [number per spade cut]
Biological status: [excellent / good / moderate / low / absent]

SLAKE TEST
Result: [held / slumped slowly / dispersed]
Aggregate stability: [stable / moderate / absent]

TEXTURE
[Sandy / sandy loam / loam / clay loam / clay]

OVERALL ASSESSMENT
[2–3 sentences: what is the soil's condition; what is the most important limiting factor]

PRIORITY ACTIONS
1. [first action]
2. [second action]
```

**Next steps:**
- `/s4ag-soil` — run a full soil test interpretation and food web assessment to put numbers behind this field reading.
- Run **water-patterns** (within this skill) if the profile shows anaerobic mottling or compaction that may relate to drainage.
- `/s4ag-composting` — if biology is low, begin compost-based food web rebuilding.

---

## Water Patterns

*Maps how water moves across and through the land — identifying problems, opportunities, and the starting point for any water management design.*

Water reading is distinct from drainage diagnosis. This sub-tool maps the full water pattern of a property: where it enters, how it moves, where it ponds, where it infiltrates, where it exits, and where it is causing or receiving damage. This map is the prerequisite for any earthworks, irrigation, or drainage investment.

**The water reading walk:**

**Conduct this observation during or immediately after significant rainfall — or use aerial imagery from a wet period if available.**

**1. Entry points — where does water arrive?**
- Direct rainfall across the property
- Surface inflow from neighbouring properties, roads, or higher ground (note volume estimate: large upslope catchment can generate significant run-on)
- Springs or seeps (identify exact location — critical asset)

**2. Movement — how does water travel?**

Walk every drainage line on the property. For each:

| Observation | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Clear, fast flow in defined channel | Active drainage line; check for incision/erosion |
| Slow, spreading flow with no defined channel | Good infiltration; water slowing and entering soil |
| Dry channel with fresh erosion marks | Episodic high-volume flow; erosion risk |
| Permanently damp or vegetated channel | Possible spring, high water table, or drainage block |
| Concentrated flow tracks (rills or gullies) | Active erosion; water moving faster than soil can absorb |

**3. Ponding areas — where does water sit?**

Mark every area that ponds after rain. Note:
- How long it takes to drain (hours, days, weeks)
- Whether it is surface ponding (drainage problem) or infiltration to water table (asset)
- Whether livestock are present — hoof traffic on wet ground causes severe compaction and water table disruption

**4. Infiltration zones — where does water disappear quickly?**

Sandy or stony areas, healthy sward with high OM, woodland edges — these are high-infiltration areas. They are assets: water entering here is water available to the whole system.

**5. Exit points — where does water leave the property?**

Identify all streams, drainage outlets, and road drains that carry water off the property. Consider:
- Is more water leaving than needs to? (opportunity to capture more on-property)
- Is the water leaving carrying topsoil? (erosion problem)
- Is the exit point creating problems downstream? (compliance and relationship issue)

**Reading the pattern in relation to the keyline:**

With the keyline identified from the landform reading, cross-reference the water movement:
- Water above the keyline that is running off rather than infiltrating: prime target for swale or keyline ripping intervention
- Water below the keyline concentrating in a valley: may need a dam or pond to capture; alternatively leave to recharge water table

**Checkpoint — confirm before finalising:**
- Was the observation done in wet conditions — or is this a desk-based reading from satellite or aerial imagery? Direct observation in wet conditions is significantly more accurate.
- Are there any known water infrastructure features (existing dams, tile drains, culverts, water rights) that need to be mapped?
- Is water management the urgent priority (flooding, drought, erosion) or a design phase that will follow land establishment?

A water pattern reading done in dry summer conditions on a property with complex drainage misses the problems that only appear under hydraulic load.

**Output:**
```
WATER PATTERN MAP — [Property Name]

WATER ENTRY
Rainfall area: [total property area receiving direct rainfall]
Surface run-on: [from what direction, estimated volume]
Springs/seeps: [location and estimated flow rate]

MOVEMENT PATTERNS
[Drainage line 1]: [description, condition, flow behaviour]
[Drainage line 2]: [description, condition, flow behaviour]
[Overland flow areas]: [where water sheets across the surface]

PONDING AREAS
[Area 1]: [location, duration after rain, likely cause]
[Area 2]: [location, duration, likely cause]

INFILTRATION ZONES
[Area]: [soil type, vegetation, infiltration behaviour]

EXIT POINTS
[Exit 1]: [location, volume estimate, condition — carrying sediment?]

KEYLINE POSITION
[Description of keyline location and water behaviour above/below it]

PROBLEMS IDENTIFIED
1. [problem — erosion / ponding / loss of water off property]
2. [problem]

OPPORTUNITIES IDENTIFIED
1. [opportunity — dam site / swale location / spring development]
2. [opportunity]
```

**Next steps:**
- `/s4ag-earthworks` — design the swales, keyline ripping, or dams the water pattern map identifies as opportunities.
- `/s4ag-water` — if irrigation or drought management is the priority, move to water system design.
- Run **potential-mapping** (within this skill) — water is the single biggest constraint and opportunity for enterprise placement.

---

## History Reading

*Reconstructs what has happened on this land before you — through aerial photography, local knowledge, physical indicators, and records.*

Land carries its history in its body. Past uses leave marks that persist for decades: raised beds from market gardens, hard pans from decades of tillage at the same depth, herbicide-resistant weed populations, heavy metal accumulation from sewage sludge, or nematode problems from continuous cropping. Reading this history before investing is essential — some legacies are assets, others are constraints that take years to overcome.

**The history reading process:**

**1. Aerial and satellite photography — start here.**

Most national mapping and planning authorities hold historical aerial photography spanning back to the 1940s–1960s. Google Earth's historical imagery slider often provides 15–20 years of coverage. Examine:
- What was on this land 20, 40, 60 years ago? (orchard, market garden, pasture, industrial, residential)
- Were there structures that have since been demolished? (contamination risk below concrete or hard standing)
- Has the drainage pattern changed? (ditch blocking, culverting, field amalgamation often causes current drainage problems)
- Are there crop marks visible in dry summer imagery? (buried features, drainage tiles, former field boundaries)

**2. Soil survey and geological maps.**

National soil surveys (USDA Web Soil Survey, UK LandIS, Australian ASRIS) provide:
- Soil series identification — the range of soil types likely on the property
- Drainage class — naturally well-drained, imperfectly drained, or poorly drained
- Parent material — what the soil developed from (affects mineral balance, depth, and texture)
- Known limitations — flooding risk, shrink-swell clay, high acidity

This is desk research before the first site visit — it tells you what to look for when you arrive.

**3. Planning and land registry records.**

In most jurisdictions, planning permission records are publicly available. Search for:
- Industrial permissions — any manufacturing, storage, or processing that could indicate ground contamination
- Change of use permissions — what the land was formally used as and when it changed
- Environmental permits — any permitted discharges or waste disposal that affected the site

**4. Local knowledge — the most underused resource.**

Farmers, residents, and local historians who have known the land for decades hold information no document will contain:
- Where flooding has historically occurred
- Where tip or waste was buried (not uncommon in farm corners and hedgerows)
- What the previous farmer grew, what inputs they used, what problems they had
- Where the best and worst ground has always been

Spend time with neighbours and local farming community before forming conclusions from desk research alone.

**5. Physical indicators of history.**

Walk the land looking for:

| Physical indicator | Historical meaning |
|---|---|
| Ridges and furrows in pasture | Medieval or early modern cultivation; often indicates heavy clay that was abandoned |
| Straight drainage lines in wet ground | Victorian or post-war drainage engineering; tiles may be blocked or collapsed |
| Old hedge lines (even if removed) | Former field boundaries — soil chemistry and biology may differ either side |
| Compressed hard areas under old gateways | Decades of hoof and wheel traffic; deep compaction |
| Mounds or hollows in fields | Buried features, old ponds, former building footprints |
| Vigorous nettles in old corners | Historical nitrogen concentration — old midden, compost heap, or livestock yard |
| Distressed vegetation in a line or pattern | Buried infrastructure (drain, pipe, cable) or contamination |

**Checkpoint — confirm before finalising:**
- What is the purpose of the history reading — purchase due diligence, planning an enterprise, or understanding an existing problem? The depth of research justified differs.
- Are there any known or suspected contamination risks on the property or neighbouring properties?
- Is this land in a region with a history of intensive horticulture or market gardening? These histories often leave soil chemical and biological legacies (methyl bromide, persistent herbicides, nematicide residues) that matter enormously for planning.

A history reading done only through aerial photography without local knowledge misses the half of the story that is never written down.

**Output:**
```
LAND HISTORY ASSESSMENT — [Property Name]

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY FINDINGS
[Decade]: [land use visible]
[Decade]: [land use visible]
Key changes noted: [description]

SOIL SURVEY DATA
Soil series: [series name]
Drainage class: [well / imperfect / poor]
Parent material: [geology]
Known limitations: [list]

PLANNING AND RECORDS
Previous uses: [list with dates where available]
Contamination risk: [none identified / possible / confirmed — type]

LOCAL KNOWLEDGE
[Findings from neighbours/local community — key points]

PHYSICAL INDICATORS
[Indicator]: [historical interpretation]
[Indicator]: [historical interpretation]

LEGACY ISSUES IDENTIFIED
1. [issue — contamination risk / drainage infrastructure / compaction legacy / weed population / chemical residue]
2. [issue]

LEGACY ASSETS IDENTIFIED
1. [asset — historic soil depth / old orchard biological legacy / good water infrastructure]
2. [asset]
```

**Next steps:**
- Run **potential-mapping** (within this skill) — the history assessment feeds directly into identifying constraints on enterprise choice.
- `/s4ag-soil` — if contamination or chemical legacy is indicated, plan a soil testing programme that addresses these specifically.
- `/s4ag-earthworks` — if drainage infrastructure is identified as blocked or collapsed, plan investigation and repair before designing new systems.

---

## Potential Mapping

*Translates all land reading observations into a working map of enterprise potential, constraints, and priority actions.*

Potential mapping is where observation becomes decision. This sub-tool takes the outputs from landform reading, vegetation indicators, soil profile, water patterns, and history reading, and synthesises them into a practical enterprise-by-enterprise assessment. The output is not a plan — it is the honest picture of what this land can support, at what cost, and in what sequence.

**The synthesis framework:**

**1. Zone the land by primary potential.**

Using the observations, identify zones based on their most productive use:

| Zone type | Characteristics | Suited to |
|---|---|---|
| High-potential cropping | Deep soil, good drainage, gentle slope, good biology, no legacy issues | Annual vegetables, grains, intensive horticulture |
| Pasture and grazing | Good sward, adequate drainage, any slope up to 15%, manageable biology | All livestock; pasture improvement |
| Perennial and tree crops | Any slope, any biology level — trees rebuild it; adequate depth for roots | Orchards, agroforestry, food forest |
| Wet or flood-prone | High water table, seasonal flooding, poor drainage | Aquaculture, wetland habitat, amenity |
| Steep or erosion-risk | Slope 15%+, existing erosion, shallow soil | Forestry, revegetation, silvopasture |
| Contamination or legacy issue | Known or suspected contamination, deep compaction, severe biological depletion | Remediation first; enterprise after |

**2. Map constraints by zone.**

For each zone, list:
- The primary constraint on productive use (drainage, slope, biology, contamination, access)
- The cost and timeline to address it
- Whether the constraint is addressable without major investment or requires significant capital

**3. Sequence enterprise by readiness.**

Not all zones are ready for enterprises now. Some need remediation first. Sequence by:
- Ready now: adequate soil, biology, and drainage; enterprise can start without major intervention
- Ready in 1–2 seasons: needs cover cropping, compaction relief, or drainage improvement before planting
- Ready in 3–5 years: needs biological rebuilding, significant drainage work, or contamination remediation
- Long-term (5+ years): severe degradation or slope limitation; perennials or restoration only

**4. Identify highest-leverage first moves.**

What single action delivers the most improvement across the most area? Common high-leverage first moves:
- Keyline ripping across the mid-slope zone: aerates, infiltrates water, breaks tillage pan — low cost, high impact
- Establishing cover crops on bare or degraded ground: begins food web rebuild, protects soil, costs seed only
- Blocking a damaged drainage line: recovers a wet zone, eliminates a source of topsoil loss
- Installing a single dam or pond at an identified catchment point: water security across the whole property

**5. Apply the transition pathway.**

Meet the farmer where they are. A potential map for a farmer coming from conventional intensive cropping looks different from one for a farmer moving into a neglected pastoral property. The transition pathway from the spec applies: start with the lowest-cost, lowest-risk first moves and sequence improvements in order of leverage.

**Checkpoint — confirm before finalising:**
- Has the farmer completed all five prior sub-tools, or is potential mapping being run on partial information? Incomplete observation leads to incomplete zoning — flag what is missing.
- What is the farmer's enterprise intention — food production, livestock, diversification, ecological restoration? The potential map is always relative to the intended use.
- What is the available capital for first-phase investment? High-leverage low-cost moves get priority; capital-intensive options are second-phase.

Running potential mapping without completed vegetation and water pattern observations means the map misses biology and hydrology — the two variables that most control what an enterprise will cost to establish.

**Output:**
```
POTENTIAL MAP — [Property Name]

ZONE SUMMARY
[Zone name / area]: [soil, biology, drainage status] — suited to [enterprise]
[Zone name / area]: [soil, biology, drainage status] — suited to [enterprise]
[Zone name / area]: [constraints] — requires [remediation] before [enterprise]

CONSTRAINTS BY ZONE
[Zone]: [primary constraint] — estimated cost/time to address: [estimate]
[Zone]: [primary constraint] — estimated cost/time to address: [estimate]

ENTERPRISE READINESS
Ready now: [zones and suitable enterprises]
Ready in 1–2 seasons: [zones and what is needed to make them ready]
Ready in 3–5 years: [zones and longer-term remediation path]
Long-term (5+ years): [zones suited only to perennials or restoration]

HIGHEST-LEVERAGE FIRST MOVES
1. [action] — [area affected] — [estimated cost] — [expected outcome]
2. [action] — [area affected] — [estimated cost] — [expected outcome]
3. [action] — [area affected] — [estimated cost] — [expected outcome]

INFORMATION GAPS
[List any sub-tools not yet completed that would change this map]

TRANSITION PATHWAY
[2–3 sentences: where the land is now, direction of travel, realistic timeline for first enterprise establishment]
```

**Next steps:**
- `/s4ag-soil` — move from the field assessment to a full soil chemistry and biology test programme to put numbers behind the potential map.
- `/s4ag-earthworks` — design the water management infrastructure the potential map identifies as priority.
- `/s4ag-regenerative` — if the potential map reveals a farm system in need of fundamental redesign, run the whole-farm regenerative framework.